Before we can discuss the way that the legal profession as attempted, either successful or not, to create a monopoly the definition of what a professional is should be looked at. A profession, according to the functionalists, is first serves the needs of the public s best interest. To the functionalists there is no professional bank robber. A profession has a strong community or essentially by blocking out competition. The last and most important idea of professionalism is self-regulation. It is the ultimate goal of any profession to be self-regulated. Here is where we can observe that professions do not establish a monopoly, yet the term profession itself means to monopolize the work place. According to people of any profession theory will argue that this is a neccesity. The only people, professionals argue, that can judge or regulate the in this case lawyers would be expert lawyers. It would not make sense to have professionals from other areas such as blacksmiths, doctors, electricians, etc., regulate the legal profession.

There are two sides to this argument that the legal profession claims. Though the self regulation is good because they can now set standards for the profession and high ones at that, on the other hand they will be less likely to punish on of their own because it makes the profession look bad. This argument of whether it is in the public s best interest remains to be seen and self-regulation is in a constant struggle to prove so.

The strategies employed by those who wished to keep the legal profession just that a profession, for which I already showed means monopoly, was by first establishing barriers for prospective lawyers to cross. In other words, guidelines that forbid any citizen to just claim divine lawyership becoming a lawyer without the proper education or knowledge. The first step to achieve this was by forming an American Bar Association ABA , which was accomplished in 1878. Before this there were local Bar Associations, which had neither real ties nor any organization to begin to regulate the practices of lawyers. The Bar Examinations, which are a form of self-control, began to be used as a tool. The ABA struggled to get states to accept this as the entry port in to the legal profession. This is one way in which the profession can regulate who becomes lawyers, the Association would regulate the number of lawyers in the industrial states for there were already a number of lawyers, and they want to keep competition down. This is a fundamental goal of monopolies to eliminate competition.

As the Bar Examinations gained power, those wishing to be lawyers realized that they needed to go to school to learn about the tests. One cannot take a test for which they do not know the subject matter. Consequently, the number of law schools increased drastically. The ABA lost control to law schools, the schools are cheap to maintain and kept increasing enrollment, offering part-time school, giving every opportunity for as many aspiring lawyers a chance. After the ABA was unsuccessful and felt like they were losing control they put pressure on the law schools to slow down, but they had no reason to. The next step for the ABA, in trying to monopolize the legal profession was to work with the most rigorous and prestigious schools giving them accreditation.

1921 saw the ABA adopt a formal standard way of legal training, teamed up with the Association of American Law School to raise the standards for access to membership. Proving once again unsuccessful the ABA pushed to mandate that all state bars to only accept new lawyers who attended only accredited law schools. This was needed because the attempt at monopolizing was failing because students were not going to the more expensive accredited law schools. Now a first step at gaining a monopoly at what schools lawyers must attend was successful. During the depression and WW II the unaccredited schools were driven out, thus a true monopoly over the entrance into the profession was completed.

The next step to further the monopoly was to mandate that all accredited law schools mandate that all law students must have a college education. The Bar would and was in constant battle with state legislatures of trying to further regulate bar admittance. The Bar Association established a character and fitness test to regulate and discourage the number of immigrants and minorities from applying.

The ABA also attempted was to ensure self-regulation, doing this the legal profession would maintain itself as a legitimate profession. They must do this by lobbying government. This proved to highly successful for lawyers as they gained ground by working with other professionals and making treaties and lobbying. It would not seem that difficult to me, since most politicians were lawyers themselves, and much of that was to secure the governments willingness and ability to the ABA. It goes without saying that members of the ABA will do what is in the best interest to lock the legal profession by the use of legislative laws, and those making the laws themselves are ABA members.

For the most part the ABA was successful in monopolizing the profession and continues to do so, it has taken them much hardship and time. Even though there is a rise in the number of lawyers, the ABA will limit those who pass the bar to balance the workforce. One area that the ABA has been very successful is creating an ethnic monopoly. Not very minorities are lawyers for various policies and regulations established by the bar thus blacks framed the NBA, no not the National Basketball Association but the National Bar Association. This association is becoming very powerful, they are an organization aimed to help and support other black lawyers.

In conclusion the ABA has over the last century painstakingly attempted to monopolize the legal profession. The ultimate goal being self-regulation was finally achieved through the government. For example it is illegal to give legal advice if you are not a lawyer, one cannot represent another in a court of law without a law license; which are controlled by the ABA. There are gamuts of things the nonprofessionals cannot do, unless licensed. The ABA today has complete control over who gets to become a lawyer and in some ways that is good; rather, on the other hand the law profession in our society is looked down upon. And the way they are systematically denying access or making it impractical for minorities shows that someone needs to regulate the self-regulated professions

Theater music is all music composed to govern, enhance, or support a theatrical conception. Music composed for theatrical purposes obeys different laws than does the music for concert performance or conventional opera. Whereas in opera the music dictates the form in which the dramatic visual imagery is presented and governs its development, in other kinds of theater the music is, at best, an equal partner among its principal elements. In concert, of course, the music is the sole factor that determines the experience.

Theatrical music is variously related to the type of a character and his behavior. Music can accompany character’s actions such as movement and his behavior. In some instances music is dominant, in some it is subservient. If a character is moving quickly, you would have an instrument such as a violin playing rapidly and have it follow his actions. On the other hand, if the character was dragging himself, you would have and instrument such as a cello play slow stretched out notes.

Today we have the technology and tools to make every play performance better and more effective than the ones previously preformed. Different performances are made to suit different audiences. Producers and directors are ones who modify plays in order to satisfy their audience. Every play director has his idea of creating a great impact on the audience. Some of them fail and some succeed. All plays function in a different way and are written to be performed. They are not like prose or poetry. In poetry for example, you can not put extra words or comments, but with a play you can do whatever you like, as long as you have a good imagination and a way of pleasing the audience. In the performance, the director can place music at certain places within the play according to his taste. In my opinion, every play would be boring if it lacked music at some points. With ten years of musical experience, I would agree that all plays should contain some music in order to keep the audience awake. It is totally up to the director of the play to decide where and when he wants it played.

In A Doll’s House, Nora is the character who evolves the most. The reason I chose her as a reference is the fact that she is the character who constantly changes the way she acts in order to accommodate the changes. In other words, she constantly alters her attitude when she goes from one person to another. Nora is a quick motioned, jerky character, who is constantly called by animal names such as bird and squirrel, by her husband Helmer. Therefore, the best sort of music accompanying her would be a flute or a piccolo playing high pitched, quick tones. This music would create more life to the play and would go very well with the actual character.

Act II is the act where Nora makes most changes. As a reader, you are imagining different musicals at different episodes, which satisfy the character’s behavior. Reading the play in this manner creates more meaning as well as more life to the actual play.

In the beginning of the act, Nora talks to Christine. Christine reproaches Nora for having borrowed the money from Dr. Rank to pay for Helmer’s rest cure in Italy. Empathetically the girl denies it, for, she says, she would never allow herself placed in such a ‘horribly painful position’ toward their old friend. Now in this situation, there could be a cello playing deeply in the background. The audience is aware that Nora doesn’t want to stick to the subject, and as soon as Helmer appears, Nora quickly goes to greet him and then coaxes him once more to allow Krogstad to keep his position in the bank. In this instance, as soon as Helmer appears, there could be a change in tempo of the music being played. There could be a flute and a violin playing high, quick notes, to show Nora’s nature and the way she moves to greet Helmer.

Later on, Nora insults Helmer by remarking how unlike him it is to take such ‘a narrow-minded way of looking at things’. At this point Helmer is very angry. An orchestra playing a sharp set of tones could be played to emphasize Helmer’s anger. The loudness and the intone of the notes played would really help the audience see Helmer’s anger. This is a good example of why music should be used in all plays. Just by shouting and making a grim on his face wouldn’t create a dramatic effect for the audience, but if that is combined with the music, there would be a much greater impact upon the audience.

Before Dr. Rank arrives, Nora is a cheerful and playful person ‘like a bird’, so a piccolo could play a set of quick, high notes to show her motion. Nora stay like this when Dr. Rank arrives, but the situation calms down when he tells her that he loves her. At that point, the quick music would stop, because Nora would have been confused. A violin could play something slow until Nora decides what to reply. This is a good point because the change is spontaneous. The music would go from quick and cheerful, to something very slow and rather depressing to compensate.

So far we have had either happy or depressing set of tones accompanying Nora’s character. When Nora reads Krogstad’s threatening mail, a violin could play something sharp but not so fast, in order to create a tense, threatening situation. This would make the whole episode more dramatic for the audience, because music would be showing that there is something tense occurring which maybe the character wouldn’t be able to perform. On her way to Christine, the music would stay the same, but as soon as she reached her the music would stop.

Music in the play shouldn’t constantly be played because the audience wouldn’t concentrate more on it and maybe miss some crucial points. Therefore, the director should be very careful in choosing the places for music and places to leave without any.

At the point where Torvald is busy reading mail and Nora is distracting him, the play could have silent background orchestra playing with a piccolo or a flute being emphasized at the points Nora moves around distracting him. Nora then tells him she’s nervous about the dance and asks for assistance. While dancing, Helmer gets extremely mad because Nora ignored his instructions. At this point, his action can be accompanied by a sudden start of an orchestra playing sharp, loud tones, which emphasize his extreme anger. Therefore the music would have to be going from softer up to a point where it is extremely loud, to show the peak of his anger.

This music would then slowly decrease in speed and loudness as he slowly looses his anger and starts calling his wife animal names such as in this case ‘where’s my little skylark’ and therefore a flute should be playing something soft, to show his passion and love towards Nora.

The intensity and the type of music are mostly important at the openings and closing of the acts. Just like an introduction and a conclusion of a paper, they serve to introduce and close an act. It is perfectly possible to use music in plays but it is up to the director to decide when and where he should place it. An emphasis should mostly be placed on the entrances and exits as well as on introduction of new characters, because the music would give the play a dramatic effect, which would help the audience understand the performance better. Drama is always creative. The author only writes a play, and many producers edit it in order to make it ‘better’ or more effective.

As a reader, if you take in consideration what music could be played when and using some imagination, reading a play in this manner would create more meaning to the overall play, and help the reader understand the true nature of the characters.

Another goal setting procedure is the widespread use of the acronym SCAMP as a way of teaching athletes simple goal setting procedures. Specify exactly how much you want to improve and how you can measure it. Set goals that are challenging but have possibility. Set goals that are attainable. Set multiple goals to increase probability of attainment. Set goals that relate to you, ones that are personal. Over recent years, considerable attention has been paid to the development of 11 theories and models dealing with participation motivation in sports. “The work deliberately focuses on young athletes and highlights the significance of intrinsic motivators in maximizing an individual’s long term commitment to sport.” Butt, 1987:215 At the same time, the dangers associated with either parents or coaches emphasizing extrinsic rewards are openly acknowledged. In brief, the history of research on work motivation has shown a gradual shift from traditional content models of work motivation which strived to list or classify motivators, and towards an appreciation of the complexities of the process of motivation. “The complexities of the process of motivation are exemplified by the various expectancy-value models which describe personal and environmental variables play their part in determining the relationship between effort, performance, rewards, and satisfaction.” Garfield, 1984:34

The argument advanced by Porter and Lawler is that motivation is related to performance, to reward and to satisfaction in a definable way. “Three principle components are taken to determine motivation, namely expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.” Butt, 1987:86 Our motivation will depend first, upon our belief that we are capable of influencing our performance through increasing effort. Second, our knowledge that an increase in performance will result in more awards. Finally, it will depend on the value which we place on the reward that we expect to receive. This is represented in the model below.

One important feature of this model is the emphasis it places on feedback. “Accordingly in the context of coaching the model has considerable practical utility for identifying and dealing with management problems effectively.” Butt, 1987: 87 The model also has great learning value for considering the interaction between a number of cognitive and environmental factors in determining satisfaction and future effort. However, the complexity of the model also means that it is difficult to develop a research project which is able to look at each component systematically or to take into account all other possible intervening factors, for example, attributional style. “Once more, occupational psychology may present genuine opportunities for understanding and there is a need to ensure that an awareness of the many faces of sport, both amateur and professional, voluntary and compulsory, are kept very much to the fore in any further discussion of sport motivation.” Garfield, 1984:38

Using a very basic expectancy-value model to frame discussion, a preliminary study by Kremer and Robinson 1992 considered the attitudes and motivations of professional apprentice soccer players that were from Northern Ireland who had travelled to join English and Scottish teams, often to return to Ireland after being rejected there. “Contrary to predictions based on intrinsic motivation models, these platers did not return disenchanted and lost to the game, but almost invariably they slotted comfortably into life in the Irish League, often older and wiser as to their potential but still continuing to take a very active part in the game which they continued to enjoy.” Butt, 1987:88 Clearly the reward structure which motivated these young professional athletes was very different from that which is described in relation to participation rates and drop-outs amongst young, amateur athletes. Once more, occupational psychology may present genuine opportunities for understanding and there is a need to ensure that a knowledge and awareness of the many faces of sport, both amateur and professional, voluntary and compulsory, are kept very much to the front in any future discussion of sport motivation. From this research that has been done over some four years, one can understand that psychology does play a significant part in sport and in the minds of athletes, especially at a young age. Sport psychology ranges from judging an athlete’s personality all the way to his her coach. We see the many methods and techniques used by psychologists to keep an athlete in the right frame of mind to participate in sports. We have seen methods dealing with the cognitive side of sport psychology such as imagery and visualization to handle stress in sports. We have seen methods of clinical psychology such as relaxation techniques to release pre-game tensions and anxiety. We have seen methods of social psychology dealing with harmful aggression of athletes. We also have seen methods of occupational psychology in which the coaches of athletes get involved in psychology and motivation models come into play for coaches to use in order to motivate their athletes.

We can see that psychologists have not ignored psychology in the world of sport, something that cannot be ignored with the growing number in athletic participation by young people. “With each new year comes an increase in new developments dealing with sport psychology.” Murphy & White, 1978:9 However, there is still much work to be done in sport psychology. There are still many unresolved questions and even some new questions and even some new questions that have arisen over the years dealing with sport psychology. Take anxiety for instance. Psychologists have found ways to reduce anxiety but not eliminate it. Maybe there is no way to eliminate it since everyone has it. Another example is aggression. Wherever there are sports, there is aggression. Psychologists have stated that sports are a way for people to release their aggression. However, they still have not been able to fully eliminate the violence in sports. Psychologists are also working on new methods for motivating athletes because some athletes are harder to motivate that others. Even though there are these unresolved issues in sport psychology, the future of psychology in sports, especially youth sports, looks to be on a very progressive track with many new discoveries.

A major driving force behind the culture of England was the Church of England. Henry VIII founded the Church of England in the 1500 s as a result of his dispute with the Roman Catholic Church. The Church was a very powerful political force http: www.gober.net victorian reports religion.html . English society was far from a secular one. Because of both its size and power, the Church was able to exercise great power of the people.

It was during the 18th century, 1738 to be exact, when the Evangelical movement began in England http: www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk REevangelical.htm . The movement is believed to have begun when John Wesley was converted. Wesley was not allowed to preach in Church of England churches. Because of this, he was forced to preach mostly outdoors, and ultimately form his own organization, which began the Wesleyan Church.

Eighteenth century England was marked by strong feelings of anti-Catholicism. This was due to many reasons. The main reason was the popularity of the Protestant religion in England. The main religion, Anglicanism, was, in fact, a Protestant religion. The main reason for the conflict during this time period was the disagreement concerning the authority of the Pope. Protestants disagreed with the fact that the Pope was the center of the religion rather than Jesus. They believed that this went completely against Christian beliefs and what was taught in the Bible Haydon 1993:4 . There was also a great fear among the English that the Catholics would attempt to take over England and create a Papal monarchy. The fear was that if England became a Catholic-ruled nation, the English people would lose many of their freedoms and liberties. There were many social pressures and prejudices facing Catholics during this time. They could not hold public office. Catholics also could not receive degrees from the top universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. Many were also prevented from gaining employment or fired from their jobs because of their religion Haydon 1993:14 . Some of this discrimination finally came to an end in 1778 with the passing of the Catholic Relief Act, which removed some parts of the anti-Catholic legislation. However, up until 1791, Catholics were not able to legally hold religious services.

Religion continued to have a great impact in China during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Probably the most important religion in China was Confucianism. Confucianism was not the prototypical religion, as it did not have a god Yang 1961:244 . Rather, it was more of a guiding philosophy for the Chinese people. Most of Chinese society during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was dictated by this philosophy. Many of the laws and customs that are still in practice today are based on Confucian philosophy. The main point that Confucianism brought to China was the idea of the five major relationships. These were: sovereign and subject, parent and child, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. What these relationships did was to end abuse by the so-called higher ups. Under this relationship system, the superior was to treat his subordinate with respect in order to be respected himself. Taoism also was a religion that had an effect on the people of China. The goal of Taoism is to create a relationship with the Tao, which is thought of as Christians think of God. Taoists believed that the key to happiness was to lead a good and moral life. This caused a great impact, as the Chinese were greatly discouraged, not only by law, but also by religion, to act in a moral manner.

Buddhism is another religion that affected Chinese civilization. Buddhism is similar to Taoism and Confucianism in that it taught the importance of good deeds. These three religions combined to form the basis on which many people in China still live today.

Christianity was most successfully introduced into China during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. However, many of the missionaries, the Jesuits in particular, tried to change the religion to conform to Chinese culture. This did not sit well with the Franciscans and Dominicans. They then appealed to Pope Clement XI. The Pope agreed with them and sent a representative to China in 1721 to enforce his ruling. However, the emperor of China at that time was angered by the fact that foreigners were trying to control religion in his country. Because of this, by 1740 all missionaries were removed from China Orr 1980:13-14 .

One aspect of Chinese religion that differed greatly from western religions was the worship of one s ancestors. Ancestor worship played a huge part in the everyday life of Chinese people. Every home contained altars representing dead relatives Yang 1961:29 . These ancestors were a part of everyday worship, as it was believed that something terrible would come upon them if they did not pay their respects to the deceased relatives.

Every civilization in the world has been affected in one way or another by religion. Religion can lead to both good and evil. Usually, religion has both effects on the civilization where it is practiced. Oftentimes religion has been a cause of war. In England, religion was a major cause of discrimination during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was very difficult for English Catholics to live normal lives during this time. Even though they believed in the same God as the English Protestants, they could not find a common ground. It seems as if the English, rather than fearing the Catholic religion, feared the power of the Pope instead. By allowing the Catholics to have pure religious freedom, the English believed that the tyrannical Pope would somehow have rule over them. They believed that the only way to keep the power of the Pope out of England was to limit the power of all Catholics within their territory. This was why Catholics were forbidden to hold public office and gain college degrees.

While religion in England seemed to serve mainly as a dividing force, in China it served to unite the people. While China had its share of discrimination, the religions that were practiced there mainly unified the people. Although there was such a diversity of religious practices, many of them were very similar. For example, Confucianism and Taoism had many of the same beliefs and philosophies. These religions both taught acceptance and tolerance for others. This played a large part in the success of the Chinese people throughout history.

The religions of England and China both helped to shape their respective cultures. Each country seems to have been affected differently by the religions that are practiced there. While Protestantism and Catholicism could not seem to find a balance in England, the many religions of China seemed to blend quite easily and without too much conflict. This is mainly because the religions practiced in England had human leaders. Religion, when left alone, can function with great ease. It is when people try to exercise control over the religion that the problems start. Conversely, the religions practiced in China had no human leaders. Rather, these religions were more like a set of philosophies that taught acceptance and tolerance of those around you. This is the main difference in the religion of China and England.

Bibliography: References

Haydon, Colin. Anti-Catholicism in 18th Century England. Manchester University Press. 1993. New York, New York

Orr, Robert G. Religion In China. Freedom Press, Inc. 1980.

New York, New York.

Stephen Orchard, Evangelical Eschatology and the Missionary Awakening. Journal of Religious History, June 1998 v22 n2 p 132 20 .

Yang, C.K. Religion In Chinese Society. University of California

Press. 1961. Los Angeles, California

Yi, Jimmy. The Religious Climate of Victorian England http: www.gober.net victorian reports religion.html. 3 27 00

It is the arrogance of many scientists that leads us to believe that scientific theories are facts, and can be treated as truth replacing religion by explaining the facts behind the creation and existence of the world. The problem with this belief that science is unquestionable fact and can be treated in a similar way to a religion is twofold. First, scientific theories are advanced through observation and experimentation, these theories can never be proved entirely correct since they are based only on certain observations, as the full facts can never be known, a theory can only be said to be correct in so far as it is correct from the observations made given the facts available. Secondly, science and religion can never be directly linked since they do not overlap in any shape or form. Science deals with the physical, religion with the insubstantial. In their very essence the two are diametrically opposed to one another and can t be compared. In short, science deals with the how, religion with the why. Although science attempts to understand the world around us, how it was created and how we and other creatures came to exist, it can never fully explain the automated human search for a higher being.

There seems to be a desire within humans to believe in something larger and greater than that which is visible and physical, something science can never explain. For this reason, science can never replace religion, as it simply does not explain enough. It s explanations fall far short of what would be needed to satisfy human curiosity. Religion, in general, does a much better job of explaining what needs to be explained about human nature. However, Scientists in recent years have attempted to give their work a status of being unquestionably correct. As I have already explained, the truth of science or the correctness or otherwise of a given theory can never be entirely proved. A theory can only be proved correct in so far as it is correct given a certain set of facts, and without having all the facts available, a theory can never be given the status of absolute fact, and consequently, no scientific theory can ever be proved, although it can be proved false through further research. However, this strong criticism of science can be taken even further. Karl Popper put forward the theory that scientific facts of the present day are simply probabilities, and only hold this status until such time as new evidence emerges allowing the theory to be dropped or adapted.

Thomas Kuhn took this criticism of scientists even further, he believed that scientists, for the vast majority of the time, went to great lengths to fit their experiments to already existing theories, or when new information was taken into account, and it was simply accommodated by existing theories rather than new theories being created. Kuhn went further in his criticism; he claimed that when new theories were advanced, it was normally due to a competition between two scientists. Eventually, one theory would emerge victorious, however, this emergence, claimed Kuhn, had little to do with the correctness or otherwise of the theory and more to do with the political connections and status of the scientists involved in the battle. Feyerabend takes his criticism of the methodology of science to the extreme and claims that the scientific experiments are not based on observation of facts, but interpretation of what was seen. He claimed that theories were not so much formulated by experimentation and careful experimentation, but more through conjecture, metaphysical speculation, inspiration and revelation. This treats scientists as creative and irrational, making observations fit preconceived ideas, instead of the objective, rational, self-critical people they attempt to be. A further criticism that has been levelled at science is that it is heavily dependent on cultural background and presuppositions, and not the value-free discipline that it is so frequently thought to be.

This relies on the idea that a culture will only examine and discover that which is important to that culture. Science is currently accused of Eurocentricism . This refers to the western dominance that is exerted over scientific research. The result is that scientific study revolves around solving problems that afflict the western world, rather than attempting to solve far more difficult and profound problems afflicting the third world. For example, much funding is currently being given towards finding a cure for cancer. A further criticism of western science is that it is based on economics. Those who benefit most from a breakthrough in medical science are not those who benefit from the treatment as patients, but those who benefit as investors as they are the ones who receive the money from the sale of the treatment to health services and hospitals. There is also an arrogance about western methods of conducting scientific experiments. The western scientists appear to believe that there is only one way in which to conduct scientific experiments, there are no exceptions or contradictions. In actual fact, there are many varied ways of approaching science, and different cultures have different emphasise when examining the world around us according to their individual culture. In conclusion, the supremacy of science has been brought about by the arrogance of western scientists.

For many years, scientists, through deception, have implanted the idea in people s brains that scientific theories are unquestionably correct despite all information to the contrary. In fact, scientific supremacy has been taken so far through arrogance that the truth of science, as well as being rarely questioned, has gained the status of religion in our modern society, although science can never explain the human tendency to a belief in a God or a supernatural being, nor can it prove to the contrary. In this, however, I believe we see even more apparently the human desire for something to believe in, and despite its many flaws, for some people, science provides the alternative to a religion. Furthermore, in the attempt to maintain the belief that all scientific theories should be taken as gospel, scientists simply attempt to fit new information into old theories, or when a theory must be disregarded, it is described as unscientific . Scientific theories are also subject to human observation and therefore preconceived ideas, notions and creative thoughts. In this respect therefore, the observations can be made to fit the preconceived ideas. The supremacy of western science over other scientific cultures is also questionable as there are different ways to conduct science. In short, western science has arrogantly given the impression that there is only one true scientific method, that used by western scientists. This arrogance has led western peoples to believe unquestioningly in what scientists say, and those who read it unquestioningly apparently regard all scientific theory as absolutely correct.

Last, but most important, Black children need to be given a sense of pride of their African heritage. These children need know that they should not have to omit Black English from their lives because it is an import part of their heritage June Jordan states that Black English is like an endangered species and that we should expect it be extinguished taking with it the pride and self-identity of the African heritage. 123 The extinction of Black English would be like going back to the slavery days when Africans were forced to omit any African pride from their lives. By allowing the extinction of Black English, these children might as well have been adopted. Like adopted children, they will feel like they are missing a piece of their past and grow up searching to for the missing pieces. They will try to find where they came from, why they have difficulty with the language, and what their self-identity is. On the other hand, if America instead of omitting Black English would acknowledge it as dialect, Black children would feel that America accepts Black heritage and its history. This acceptance would no longer make the children feel rejected by society and would increase their motivation of learn the skills to become productive individuals.

It is time to leave the slavery days to what they are: the past. It is time to allow African Americans the right to be proud of their heritage, by giving them the knowledge and understanding they require to adapt what is their second language Standard English. Children must be taught with compassion and understanding, not by humiliation, which makes them ashamed of their culture.

Bibliography: Works Cited

Brathwaite, Edward Kamau. The History of the Voice. London: New Beacon, 1984.

Jordan, June. Nobody Mean More to Me Than You And the Future Life of Willie

Jordan. On Call: Political Essays. Boston: Southend Press, 1985. 123-139.

Seymour, Dorothy. Black Children, Black Speech. Paul Eschholz, Alfred Rosa, and Virginia Clark, eds. Language Awareness Essay for College Writers. 7th ed. New

York: St. Martin s, 1997. 151-158.

This paper takes a philosophical view of the Manifest Destiny phenomenon and attempts to provide logical evidence that Manifest Destiny can be argued as the sole reason for why America itself has a history. Few Americans had ever assumed that the boundaries of the United States would stand forever unchanged. Manifest Destiny was the driving force responsible for changing the face of American history. It was the philosophy that created a nation.

Manifest Destiny — The Intangible Of American History

American history was built on a chronological record of significant events, each event having a cause and subsequent effect on another event. Historical events are presented in history as being tangible, being tied to a date, or an exact happening. Manifest Destiny on the other hand, is a phenomenon. It can not be tied to a date, event or even a specific period of time. Manifest Destiny existed and still exists as the philosophy that embraces American history as a whole. Manifest Destiny is an intangible ideology that created American history. In its simplest form, Manifest Destiny can be defined as, “A Movement.” More specifically, it would be the systematic body of concepts and beliefs that powered American life and American culture.

Coining the Phrase

In 1845, a democratic leader and influential editor by the name of John L. O’Sullivan gave the movement its name. In an attempt to explain America’s thirst for expansion, and to present a defense for America’s claim to new territories he wrote:

“…. the right of our manifest destiny to over spread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federaltive development of self government entrusted to us. It is right such as that of the tree to the space of air and the earth suitable for the full expansion of its principle and destiny of growth.” Brinkley 352

Manifest Destiny became the rallying cry throughout America. The notion of Manifest Destiny was publicized in the papers and was advertise and argued by politicians throughout the nation. The idea of Manifest Destiny Doctrine became the torch, that lit the way for American expansion.

A Movement As Old As America Itself

Although the movement was named in 1845, the philosophy behind Manifest Destiny always existed throughout American History. For example, in 1818 Andrew Jackson, while taking a broad interpretation of vague instructions from President Monroe, led military forces into the Floridas during the Florida crisis. In a systematic and ruthless way, he punished the Seminal Indians for taking up arms with the Spanish, destroyed Spanish forces, and captured several cities and forts. Demkin, Chapter 8 . Americans who had moral reservations about the rough tactics of Jackson, soothed their consciences with a familiar, but not yet named philosophy. Their reasoning, the Floridas were part of American territory; therefore, destiny intended that America should have them.

The reason why Americans where in Florida in the first place, is yet another example of Manifest Destiny. The people of the deep South, wanting more fertile land, exercise what they considered to be their right. The planter class, without any political approval or permission, just took over and started settling and planting the Florida territories. This move was an example of the arrogance that the Americans had towards expansion. Americans believed that they had a right to any land they wanted.

First used in 1845, the term Manifest Destiny conveyed the idea that the rightful destiny of the US included imperialistic expansion. This idea certainly contributed to several wars. For example, in 1846 the United States declared war on Mexico and proceeded to win much of what is now the Southwestern United States. The war with Mexico was just one out of a series of aggressive acts that can be tied to America’s Manifest Destiny. Manifest Destiny emerged naturally and inevitability out of fundamental want and need to explore and conquer new lands and establish new borders. With this growth came moral, cultural, social ideological and economical differences between people, states and countries. Were these differences not the reasons why America fought for their independence in the Revolutionary War Were these differences not the primary cause for the American Civil War

The idea of Manifest Destiny is as old as America itself. The philosophy sailed with Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic. It resided in the spirits of the Jamestown colonist and it landed at Plymouth Rock with the Pilgrims. It also traveled with the fire and brimstone preachers during the Great Awakening and built the first national road. Throughout history there are numerous examples of Manifest Destiny. However, in early American history, synonyms were used to explain the not yet named Phenomenon. American history books are filled with words such as, Explorers, Frontier, Territories, Expansionism, Settlers, Idealism, Sectionalism and Immigration. Without Manifest Destiny, phrases and terms such as “Beyond the Great American Desert,” “The North West Passage,” and “The Oregon Trail,” would be just empty examples of white man’s travels.

A Disputed Philosophy

Much of the talk about Manifest Destiny had many people suggesting that America should assume the role as a world power. James Monroe in 1822 echoed this idea in his famous Monroe Doctrine when he warned Europe and the rest of the world to “Stay out of the Western Hemisphere” Demkin Chapter 8 .

In the months following the Spanish-American War, the idea of expansionism grew stronger across the United States. In Congress, legislators called for the annexation of all Spanish territories. Some newspapers even suggested the annexation of Spain itself. Expansionists such as Roosevelt, former President Harrison, and Captain Mahan argued for creating an American empire. However, others, including Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, and Mark Twain, opposed these ideas.

Manifest Destiny became a disputed philosophy. The following are two examples of the different views of the American people. This is evidence of the opposing attitudes towards the Manifest Destiny ideology. In a 1837 letter to Henry Clay, William E. Channing wrote:

“Did this county know itself, or were it disposed to profit by self-knowledge, it would feel the necessity of laying an immediate curb on its passion for extended territory…. We are a restless people, prone to encroachment, impatient of the ordinary laws of progress… We boast of our rapid growth, forgetting that, throughout nature, noble growths are slow….. It is full time that we should lay on ourselves serious, resolute restraint. Possessed of a domain, vast enough for the growth of ages, it is time for us to stop in the career of acquisition and conquest. Already endangered by our greatness, we cannot advance without imminent peril to our institutions, union, prosperity, virtue, and peace….. It is sometimes said, that nations are swayed by laws, as unfailing as those which govern matter; that they have their destinies; that their character and position carry them forward irresistibly to their goal;….

that … the Indians have melted before the white man, and the mixed, degraded race of Mexico must melt before the Anglo-Saxon. Away with this vile sophistry There is no necessity for crime. There is no fate to justify rapacious nations, any more than to justify gamblers and robbers, in plunder. We boast of the progress of society, and this progress consists in the substitution of reason and moral principle for the sway of brute force….We talk of accomplishing our destiny. So did the late conqueror of Europe Napoleon ; and destiny consigned him to a lonely rock in the ocean, the prey of ambition which destroyed no peace but his own.” Blum 276

As an example of the opposing attitude and the attitude that was voiced by the majority of Americans at the time, the following article appeared in the Democratic Review in 1845.

“Texas has been absorbed into the Union in the inevitable fulfillment of the general law which is rolling our population westward…. It was disintegrated form Mexico in the natural course of events, by a process perfectly legitimate on its own part, blameless on ours…. its incorporation into the Union was not only inevitable, but the most natural, right and proper thing in the world…. California will, probably, next fall away from…Mexico…. Imbecile and distracted, Mexico never can exert any real governmental authority over such a country…. The Anglo-Saxon foot is already on its borders. Already the advance guard of the irresistible army of Anglo-Saxon emigration has begun to pour down upon it armed with the plow and the rifle, and markings its trail with schools and colleges, courts and representative halls, mills and meeting houses. A population will soon be in actual occupation of California, over which it will be idle for Mexico to dream of dominion… All this without agency of our government, without responsibility of our people- -in natural flow of events, the spontaneous working of principles, and the adaptation of the tendencies and wants of the human race to the elemental circumstances in the midst of which they find themselves placed.” Blum 277